A Critical Review

Sumalla, E. C., Ochoa, C., & Blanco, I. (2009). (2003) Sets out to investigate The adaptive value of Post Traumatic Growth in order to This study is important to clarify whether PTG is real and measurable such as changes in self perceptions, or whether PTG is actually a defense mechanism the psyche fabricates in order to maintain identity coherence. In Summary  Research has shown on many occassions that trauma such as cancer diagnosis can lead to Post Traumatic Growth. The authors further illuminate this by making a distinction between normal personal development and the act of growth born from trauma.

The authors The authors discuss the identity of the traumatic stressor, internal source of stressor, temporal dimensions, delimitation and percieved control. The authors also identify illusory self preservation mechanisms as short term diminishing over time where are genuine growth as stable over time. The authors also point to accomodation vs assimilation where ones self scheme is either widened to include the new information or changed to form the new information. the authors propose when trauma occurs rumination leads to meaning making which when successful leads to PTG but when unsuccessful leads to depression and pessimism.

Additionally Alberts temporal comparison theory proposes that when trauma occurs we have a schism of self and that it affects our perceptions of the past in that we see it as more negative and percieve that we have grown more positive over time. People also compare self to others and percieve self as coping in a more positive way. this is the illusory nature. Argue that benefit making, Positive reappraisal and PTG should be understood as separate constructs. Research has shown that those with greatest trauma also percieve greatest growth possibly due to a schematic need to reduce the emotional impact.

In summary, Importantly the authors argue that whether PTG is real or illusory perhaps our aim as therapists should be to reduce emotional discomfort.

Critical Review of: Cancer. In L. Hass (Ed.), The Handbook of Primary Care Psychology (pp.255-262). United States: Oxford University Press.

Tibbs, & Tarr. introduce us to the topic of Psychological issues in cancer: What patients and families encounter throughout the process. Tibbs, & Tarr. argue that this question is important At the time of diagnosis and during treatment, After treatment and during survivorship, Facing recurrence and terminal illness, Family Dynamics, Coping with cancer, how psychologists can help patients, Address existential issues, Manage symptoms, Empower Patients, Enhance support, Collaborative care arrangements, communications and expectations, avoiding common mistakes, remain neutral and objective, respect the power of hope, allowing for a range of emotional expression, the role of positive thinking, when to refer. 0

Throughout the 7 page article Tibbs, & Tarr., Touch on the following topics, Typically psychological distress occurs at the time of diagnosis, cancer survivors have higher levels of depression and anxiety as compared to the normal population, however lower levels then those of psychiatric patients. Physical changes, bodily functioning, and introduction of pain and fatigue can affect quality of life and wellbeing.

Three stages of survival 1) diagnosis to 1 year, 2) from 1-3 years, 3) post 3 years. The more time passes generally the better the outcomes. Additionally survivors may report a better quality of life afterwards due to changed priorities.

Recurrance of illness causes intense emotional reactions from guilt to optimism to pessimism, the way the client reacted to the first diagnosis is key at this stage. Cancer can cause a change in the family system with roles changing and increased or decreased responsibilities.

Research shows that dealing with cancer in an active direct way leads to better outcomes. A diagnosis of cancer can lead to existential questioning and meaning making in clients. Relaxation, anti anxiety and stress skills are toaught to patients as well as any specific measures related to physical ailments. Clients can be empowered to make decisions in their own treatment.

Factors to be aware of, your own feelings about death and dying, remain neutral, respect the power of hope, allow for a range of emotional expression, consider the role of positive thinking. Be sensitive and empathetic.

Critical Review of: Breast cancer as trauma: posttrauamtic stress and posttraumatic growth. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 14, 308-319.

Cordova, et.al  introduce us to the topic of the relationship between breast cancer survivors and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as well as Post Traumatic Growth (PTG) Cordova, et.al  argue that this question is important adapt the way we treat cancer patients in order to minimise the risk of negative outcomes. Researchers have found that negative social responses or “Social Constraints” may constrain cognitive processing of trauma and thereby interupt psychological wellbeing.

Throughout the 11 page article Cordova, et.al , make the following hypothesis, Researchers predicted that 1) PTSD and PTG would be common in woman with primary breast cancer. 2) a) Demographic, medical, social constraints and percieved stress would be predictive of PTSD and PTG symptoms. b) age, education, surgery, social constraint and percieved stress would correlate to stress and c) that these same factors would correlate with PTG 3) that PTSD and PTG are unrelated.

The findings show that social constraint was associated with increased distress, as was subjective wellbeing perceptions, therefore both social constraint and perceptions can affect Post Traumatic outcomes. However they caution that the Retrospective study has limitations in that it is based on memory of perceptions and events. 

Critical Review of: Positive Adjustment to Threatening Events: An Organismic Valuing Theory of Growth Through Adversity.

Joseph, S. & Linley, A (2005) introduce us to the topic of Intrinsic motivation to growth Joseph, & Linley argue that this question is important It creates a bridge from early humanistic-existential Theories to the modern study of positive psychology. It also examines fundamental questions like some people react to trauma in different ways. Positive psychology attempts to address the full range of positive and negative experiences.

Throughout the 18 page article Joseph, & Linley, make the following arguments, Growth after adversity has three facets, 1) relationships are enhanced, 2) self view changes 3) change in life philosophy. Virtually any trauma can lead to a growth experience. Most PTSD theories do not account for the possibility of growth. There are 5 main approaches Rachmans emotional processing, Horowitz Information processing, Janoff bulmans Social Cognitive, Creamers Cognitive synthesis, Josephs Psychosocial perspective.

 Additionally theories of growth draw on the principals of PTSD theories but focus on positive change instead of pathology. Tedeshi and Calhoun offer a functional descriptive model of growth that proposes rumination as a natural consequence of trauma and self schema being disrupted. This rumination while beginning as unconscious is brought into consciousness and the rumination becomes deliberate leading to post traumatic wisdom and growth.

Theories of growth through adversity share four themes, or address 4 considerations. 1) Drive for contemplation, 2) Assimilation v accomodation, 3) meaning as comprehencion v significance 4) Hedonic and Eudamonic traditions.  Organismic theory states that humans are naturally inclined to integration, the theory also believes that each person has all the tools they need for wellbeing and fullfillment innatly.

Part of this theory is that trauma is the result of a sort of falseness and that a striving toward authenticity resolves this incongruence and trauma experience. Confrontation with an adverse event may shatter the assumptive world. in response a person has an innate drive to integrate this new experience. A persons natural tendency is to accomodate the new information where past experience and current support is lacking a negative accomodation called assimilation occurs in which the trauma is stifled and the person is left with fragility. When accomodation occurs a person naturally finds meaning and value in the experience, however when assimilation occurs the meaning becomes catastrophic negativity such as a fear of life etc.

Impacting on this are a number of factors such as Disparity between pre and post values. personality, engagement in meaning making, social environment. 

The authors support their arguments with the use of 117 references, which range from 1903 through to 2004. The authors conclude that Organismic Valuing theory provides balance in terms of positive and negative experiences, This theory has shown a greater level of wellbeing in clients. Promotes an understanding of disorder and growth. This theory is supported by great poets and writers. This study opens the way for further research to be conducted in this field.

Critical Review of: Positive Adjustment to Threatening Events: An Organismic Valuing Theory of Growth Through Adversity.

Joseph, S. & Linley, A (2005) introduce us to the topic of Intrinsic motivation to growth Joseph, & Linley argue that this question is important It creates a bridge from early humanistic-existential Theories to the modern study of positive psychology. It also examines fundamental questions like some people react to trauma in different ways. Positive psychology attempts to address the full range of positive and negative experiences.

Throughout the 18 page article Joseph, & Linley, make the following arguments, Growth after adversity has three facets, 1) relationships are enhanced, 2) self view changes 3) change in life philosophy. Virtually any trauma can lead to a growth experience. Most PTSD theories do not account for the possibility of growth. There are 5 main approaches Rachmans emotional processing, Horowitz Information processing, Janoff bulmans Social Cognitive, Creamers Cognitive synthesis, Josephs Psychosocial perspective.

 Additionally theories of growth draw on the principals of PTSD theories but focus on positive change instead of pathology. Tedeshi and Calhoun offer a functional descriptive model of growth that proposes rumination as a natural consequence of trauma and self schema being disrupted. This rumination while beginning as unconscious is brought into consciousness and the rumination becomes deliberate leading to post traumatic wisdom and growth.

Theories of growth through adversity share four themes, or address 4 considerations. 1) Drive for contemplation, 2) Assimilation v accomodation, 3) meaning as comprehencion v significance 4) Hedonic and Eudamonic traditions.  Organismic theory states that humans are naturally inclined to integration, the theory also believes that each person has all the tools they need for wellbeing and fullfillment innatly.

Part of this theory is that trauma is the result of a sort of falseness and that a striving toward authenticity resolves this incongruence and trauma experience. Confrontation with an adverse event may shatter the assumptive world. in response a person has an innate drive to integrate this new experience. A persons natural tendency is to accomodate the new information where past experience and current support is lacking a negative accomodation called assimilation occurs in which the trauma is stifled and the person is left with fragility. When accomodation occurs a person naturally finds meaning and value in the experience, however when assimilation occurs the meaning becomes catastrophic negativity such as a fear of life etc.

Impacting on this are a number of factors such as Disparity between pre and post values. personality, engagement in meaning making, social environment. 

The authors support their arguments with the use of 117 references, which range from 1903 through to 2004. The authors conclude that Organismic Valuing theory provides balance in terms of positive and negative experiences, This theory has shown a greater level of wellbeing in clients. Promotes an understanding of disorder and growth. This theory is supported by great poets and writers. This study opens the way for further research to be conducted in this field.

Modeling Health Behavior Change: How to Predict and Modify the Adoption and Maintenance of Health Behaviors
Ralf Schwarzer*

Most social cognitive theories state that the best predictor of change is a persons intention to change. But people don't always live in accordance with their own intentions. 

This article explores the intention behaviour gap and attempts to target those barriers. The author looks at 7 studies and examines the HAPA approach health action process approach. 

Many health risks are associated with risk taking behaviour, people are able to in general self regulate and adopt health positive behaviours instead.

Models of health behaviour change generally look at motivation increasing same and sustaining health positive behaviours. In continuum models the goal is to move people along from inaction to action, this assumes ppl are conscious of their motivations and intentions. The limitation of continuum models is that they predict variance in intention rather then behavioural change. 

Advanced continuum models need to look at more then motivation and intention and explore the space in between intention and action. Ie no intention did it anyway, strong intention didn't do it.

Transtheoretical model of behaviour change. 
Different interventions are important at different stages of change. Assumes two processes, past behaviour and future goals. And comprises 5 sections. 1) precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance. Also includes 10 processes of change and pros and cons.

Creamer, M., Burgess, P., & Pattison, P. (1992). Reaction to trauma: A cognitive processing model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 452-459. doi: 10.1037/0021-843x.101.3.452 (read especially the introduction and discussion sections)

The purpose of the article is to propose a cognitive behavioural model that reconceptualises other models.

cognitive models propose that people enter situations with mental schemas in place,

horowitz:

trauma provides an experience which is inconsistent with existing schemas of safety and invulnerability. and is experienced until the trauma can be reconceptualised in a way that fits in with the persons schema.

lang:

trauma results in the creation of a fear network that includes a) stimulus information, b) cognitive, affective, physiological and behavioural responses c) interpretive information about  the meaning of S-R. two conditions are required for the reduction of fear  1) fear experience must be made available(it cannot be modified without being experienced) 2) information that is inconsistent with current concepts must be made available so the network can be modified.

Proposed model:

Stage 1: Objective Exposure,Stage 2: Network Formation , how it was formed. Stage 3: intrusion (which precedes escape and avoidance) 4) Avoidance 5) Outcome. (characterised by changing the memory)

Construal theory of happiness: happiness is a function of how people construe and interpret their experiences.

Evaluation theory: happiness is a function of how we  evaluate the constant flow of incoming information. more flexible thinkers report higher wellbeing and lower neuroticism.

Self Esteem: first trait identified as important is good self esteem, high self esteem is composed of four components: 1) feeling accepted by others 2) being recipiant of positive evaluation of others 3) believe one compares favourably to others or ones ideal. 4) believing that one can initiate action in the world.

self esteem relates to optimism and achievement while happiness relates to social relationships and extraversion. self esteem may combat negativity more then happiness.

self esteem is culturally contextual.

Optimism and hope: optomists engage in more effective coping mechanisms, a key element is positive expectancies, when faced with stress optomists tend to use problem focused coping, and positive reframing.

learned optimism, the process of paying attention to how they explain events. Realistic optomism: optimism that does not distort reality. hope closely related to optimism, snyder believes that there are two components 1) pathway and 2) agency.

sense of control and self efficacy: the belief that one has the means  to obtain desired outcomes.

having a sense of meaning in life: having a sense of purpose is a high predictor of wellbeing.

components on the cognitive predictors: some research has indicated that happiness is based on an inaccurate perception of reality. known as positive illusion. Positivity is associated with better mental health.

happier people usually use downward social comparisons. and they tend to compare less often.

Positive relationships with other people: good social support increases wellbeing. there is a reciprocal relationship between social companionship and wellbeing.

Personality traits: extraversion is a predictor of wellbeing